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		<title>problemas &#124; teoremas</title>
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		<title>A Mathematical Reflections Undergraduate Problem</title>
		<link>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/11/06/a-mathematical-reflections-undergraduate-problem/</link>
		<comments>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/11/06/a-mathematical-reflections-undergraduate-problem/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 06 Nov 2009 16:04:00 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Américo Tavares</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Math]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problem]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problema]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Here is the solution to the U115 Mathematical Reflections Problem I submitted a few months ago.
Posted in Matemática, Math, Problem, Problema Tagged: Matemática, Math, Problem, Problema      <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=problemasteoremas.wordpress.com&blog=1866481&post=8842&subd=problemasteoremas&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>Here is the <a href="http://reflections.awesomemath.org/2009_3/MR_3_2009_Solutions.pdf">solution</a> to the <a href="http://reflections.awesomemath.org/2009_2/MR_2_2009_problems.pdf">U115 Mathematical Reflections Problem</a> I submitted a few months ago.</p>
<div id="attachment_8843" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 510px"><a href="http://problemasteoremas.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/u115.jpg"><img class="size-full wp-image-8843" title="MR_U115" src="http://problemasteoremas.files.wordpress.com/2009/11/u115.jpg?w=490&#038;h=717" alt="MR_U115" width="490" height="717" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">MR_U115</p></div>
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			<media:title type="html">MR_U115</media:title>
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		<title>Indução matemática</title>
		<link>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/09/15/inducao-matematica/</link>
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		<pubDate>Tue, 15 Sep 2009 11:49:24 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Américo Tavares</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Exercício]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Indução matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Matemática Gerais]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Teoria dos Números]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Exercícios]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[Reuno aqui, para comodidade de leitura, algumas entradas já publicadas sobre o princípio da indução matemática. 
§1. Por este princípio, a demonstração da veracidade de uma determinada proposição matemática  para todos os inteiros , comporta dois passos:
(1) Verifica-se a sua validade para um dado valor inteiro  (normalmente, 0 ou 1) da variável de indução [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=problemasteoremas.wordpress.com&blog=1866481&post=8815&subd=problemasteoremas&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p style="text-align:justify;">Reuno aqui, para comodidade de leitura, algumas entradas já publicadas sobre o princípio da indução matemática. </p>
<p align="justify"><span style="color:#000000;">§1. Por este princípio, a demonstração da veracidade de uma determinada proposição matemática <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=p%5Cleft%28+n%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='p\left( n\right) ' title='p\left( n\right) ' class='latex' /> para todos os inteiros <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%5Cgeq+n_%7B0%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n\geq n_{0}' title='n\geq n_{0}' class='latex' />, comporta dois passos:</span></p>
<p align="justify"><span style="color:#000000;">(1) Verifica-se a sua validade para um dado valor inteiro <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n_%7B0%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n_{0}' title='n_{0}' class='latex' /> (normalmente, 0 ou 1) da variável de indução <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' />.</span></p>
<p align="justify"><span style="color:#000000;">(2) Assume-se que é válida para o inteiro <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> e demonstra-se que é também válida para <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%2B1%2C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n+1,' title='n+1,' class='latex' /> isto é, que <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=p%5Cleft%28+n%5Cright%29%5Cimplies+p%5Cleft%28+n%2B1%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='p\left( n\right)\implies p\left( n+1\right) ' title='p\left( n\right)\implies p\left( n+1\right) ' class='latex' />.</span></p>
<p align="justify"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip' title='\bigskip' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">Vamos demonstrar de seguida o Teorema Binomial por este princípio.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Teorema</strong>: <em>Para todo o valor de <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> natural, tem-se</em></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"><em><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+x\right) ^{n}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}' title='\left( 1+x\right) ^{n}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}' class='latex' /></span></em></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"><em><span style="color:#000000;">qualquer que seja o valor real de <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x.' title='x.' class='latex' /></span></em></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip' title='\bigskip' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Demonstração</strong>:</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">O teorema verifica-se para <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%3D0%3A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n=0:' title='n=0:' class='latex' /> <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7B0%7D%5Cdbinom%7B0%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%3D%5Cdbinom%7B0%7D%7B0%7Dx%5E%7B0%7D%3D1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{0}\dbinom{0}{k}x^{k}=\dbinom{0}{0}x^{0}=1' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{0}\dbinom{0}{k}x^{k}=\dbinom{0}{0}x^{0}=1' class='latex' /> e <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5E%7B0%7D%3D1%2C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+x\right) ^{0}=1,' title='\left( 1+x\right) ^{0}=1,' class='latex' /> logo <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5E%7B0%7D%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7B0%7D%5Cdbinom%7B0%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+x\right) ^{0}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{0}\dbinom{0}{k}x^{k}.' title='\left( 1+x\right) ^{0}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{0}\dbinom{0}{k}x^{k}.' class='latex' /> Admitimos agora que o teorema é válido para <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%2C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n,' title='n,' class='latex' /> isto é, que <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29%5E%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+x\right)^{n}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}' title='\left( 1+x\right)^{n}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}' class='latex' /> e demonstremos que o é igualmente para <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%2B1.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n+1.' title='n+1.' class='latex' /> Como <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%3D%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5Cleft%281%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%7D%2C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+x\right) ^{n+1}=\left( 1+x\right) \left(1+x\right) ^{n},' title='\left( 1+x\right) ^{n+1}=\left( 1+x\right) \left(1+x\right) ^{n},' class='latex' /> vem</span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%3D%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+x\right) ^{n+1}=\left( 1+x\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}' title='\left( 1+x\right) ^{n+1}=\left( 1+x\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}' class='latex' /><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%2B1%7D.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}+\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k+1}.' title='=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}+\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k+1}.' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">Manipulamos o segundo membro (lado direito) até obter <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n+1}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k}.' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n+1}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k}.' class='latex' /> De facto,</span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%2B1%7D%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%2B%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk-1%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}+\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k+1}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}+\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n+1}\dbinom{n}{k-1}x^{k}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}+\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k+1}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}+\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n+1}\dbinom{n}{k-1}x^{k}' class='latex' /><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7B0%7Dx%5E%7B0%7D%2B%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk-1%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%5Cright%29+%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bn%7Dx%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dbinom{n}{0}x^{0}+\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}+\dbinom{n}{k-1}x^{k}\right) +\dbinom{n}{n}x^{n+1}' title='=\dbinom{n}{0}x^{0}+\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}+\dbinom{n}{k-1}x^{k}\right) +\dbinom{n}{n}x^{n+1}' class='latex' /><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7B0%7Dx%5E%7B0%7D%2B%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%5Cright%29+%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7Bn%2B1%7Dx%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dbinom{n+1}{0}x^{0}+\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k}\right) +\dbinom{n+1}{n+1}x^{n+1}' title='=\dbinom{n+1}{0}x^{0}+\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k}\right) +\dbinom{n+1}{n+1}x^{n+1}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;">pela </span><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2007/11/15/problema-6-identidade-de-pascal/"><span style="color:#000000;">identidade de Pascal</span></a><span style="color:#000000;"> e porque</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7B0%7D%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7B0%7D%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7Bn%2B1%7D%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bn%7D%3D1.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{n+1}{0}=\dbinom{n}{0}=\dbinom{n+1}{n+1}=\dbinom{n}{n}=1.' title='\dbinom{n+1}{0}=\dbinom{n}{0}=\dbinom{n+1}{n+1}=\dbinom{n}{n}=1.' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">Mas, como</span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7B0%7Dx%5E%7B0%7D%2B%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%5Cright%29+%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7Bn%2B1%7Dx%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{n+1}{0}x^{0}+\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k}\right) +\dbinom{n+1}{n+1}x^{n+1}' title='\dbinom{n+1}{0}x^{0}+\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k}\right) +\dbinom{n+1}{n+1}x^{n+1}' class='latex' /><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n+1}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k}' title='=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n+1}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">provámos, como pretendíamos, que <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%2B1%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7D%2C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+x\right)^{n+1}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n+1}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k},' title='\left( 1+x\right)^{n+1}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n+1}\dbinom{n+1}{k}x^{k},' class='latex' /> e assim acabámos a demonstração. <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cqquad+%5Cblacksquare+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\qquad \blacksquare ' title='\qquad \blacksquare ' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip' title='\bigskip' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">A partir do desenvolvimento de <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2Bx%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+x\right) ^{n}' title='\left( 1+x\right) ^{n}' class='latex' /> deduz-se imediatamente o de <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+x%2By%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%7D.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( x+y\right) ^{n}.' title='\left( x+y\right) ^{n}.' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip' title='\bigskip' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Corolário: </strong><em>Quaisquer que sejam os reais <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' /> e <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> e o natural <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> é válida a fórmula</em></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+x%2By%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cdisplaystyle+%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7Dy%5E%7Bn-k%7D.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( x+y\right) ^{n}=\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}.' title='\left( x+y\right) ^{n}=\displaystyle \sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}.' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip' title='\bigskip' class='latex' /><br />
<strong>Demonstração</strong>: Admitamos que <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5Cneq+0%3A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y\neq 0:' title='y\neq 0:' class='latex' /> </span>
</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+x%2By%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%7D%3Dy%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cleft%28+1%2B%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7By%7D%5Cright%29%5E%7Bn%7D%3Dy%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7D%5Cleft%28+%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7By%7D%5Cright%29%5E%7Bk%7D%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7Dy%5E%7Bn-k%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( x+y\right) ^{n}=y^{n}\left( 1+\frac{x}{y}\right)^{n}=y^{n}\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}\left( \frac{x}{y}\right)^{k}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}' title='\left( x+y\right) ^{n}=y^{n}\left( 1+\frac{x}{y}\right)^{n}=y^{n}\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}\left( \frac{x}{y}\right)^{k}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}' class='latex' />. </span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;">Como</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7Dy%5E%7Bn-k%7D%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7Dy%5E%7Bn-k%7D%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bn%7Dx%5E%7Bn%7Dy%5E%7B0%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}+\dbinom{n}{n}x^{n}y^{0}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}+\dbinom{n}{n}x^{n}y^{0}' class='latex' />,</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">para <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%3D0%2C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y=0,' title='y=0,' class='latex' /> tem-se</span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+x%2By%5Cright%29%5E%7Bn%7D%3Dx%5E%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( x+y\right)^{n}=x^{n}' title='\left( x+y\right)^{n}=x^{n}' class='latex' /></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;">e</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bn%7D%7Bk%7Dx%5E%7Bk%7Dy%5E%7Bn-k%7D%3Dx%5En%3D%5Cleft%28+x%2By%5Cright%29+%5E%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}=x^n=\left( x+y\right) ^{n}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}\dbinom{n}{k}x^{k}y^{n-k}=x^n=\left( x+y\right) ^{n}' class='latex' /></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;">ou seja a fórmula ainda é válida <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cqquad+%5Cblacksquare+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\qquad \blacksquare ' title='\qquad \blacksquare ' class='latex' />.</span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"> </span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">§2. </span><span style="color:#000000;">O Princípio de indução matemática é o seguinte axioma de </span><a href="http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiomas_de_Peano"><span style="color:#000000;">Peano</span></a><span style="color:#000000;">:</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">Se o conjunto A, contido em N, for tal que 1 pertence a A e n+1 pertence igualmente a A sempre que n seja elemento de A, então A = N. [N aqui é o conjunto dos naturais 1, 2, 3, ... ].</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">Uma propriedade P diz-se hereditária quando, sendo verdadeira para o inteiro n, é também verdadeira para o sucessor de n (n+1).</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">Assim, o Princípio de Indução equivale a afirmar que uma dada proposição, verdadeira para n=1 e hereditária, implica que seja verdadeira para todos os naturais 1, 2, 3, &#8230; .</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">Por isso, a aplicação deste método comporta as duas etapas (ou passos) conhecidos</span></p>
<ol style="text-align:justify;">
<li>
<p align="justify"><span style="color:#000000;">Demonstração de que uma dada proposição é válida para n=1. (Caso Base).</span></p>
</li>
<li>
<p align="justify"><span style="color:#000000;">Demonstração de que a proposição é hereditária. (Etapa de Indução).</span></p>
</li>
</ol>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">Este princípio nada ou quase nada tem a ver com o método de indução próprio das ciências naturais, que se caracteriza por se estabelecer uma lei geral observando a repetição do mesmo fenómeno em inúmeros casos particulares.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">§3. N</span>em todas as provas por indução têm o mesmo grau de dificuldade. Enquanto a do 1º. exemplo é extremamente simples e natural, a do 2º. obtive-a após tentativas, recorrendo a uma identidade algébrica auxiliar &#8212; a ser usada no passo de indução &#8212; cuja demonstração me pareceu mais simples do que a identidade inicialmente apresentada, que pode ser deduzida a partir da <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruffini_rule#Uses_of_the_rule">regra de Ruffini</a> de divisão de um polinómio em <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />, de grau <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' />, por <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x-%5Calpha+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x-\alpha ' title='x-\alpha ' class='latex' />.</p>
<p><strong>Exemplo 1</strong>: prove por indução matemática</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bk%7D%7D%3D1-%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n}}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Para <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%3D1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n=1' title='n=1' class='latex' /> a igualdade verifica-se:</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%3D1-%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{1}{2}=1-\dfrac{1}{2}' title='\dfrac{1}{2}=1-\dfrac{1}{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Admite-se que se verifica para <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bk%7D%7D%3D1-%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n}}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e prova-se que nesse caso também se verifica para <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%2B1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n+1' title='n+1' class='latex' />, ou seja, devemos chegar a</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bk%7D%7D%3D1-%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n+1}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n+1}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Vejamos: se</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bk%7D%7D%3D1-%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n}}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>então, somando <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' title='\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' class='latex' /> a ambos os membros da igualdade e simplificando o segundo membro, deduzimos sucessivamente</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bk%7D%7D%5Cright%29+%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}\right) +\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' title='\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}\right) +\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' class='latex' /> <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D1-%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D%3D1-%5Cleft%28+%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D-%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n}}+\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}=1-\left( \dfrac{1}{2^{n}}-\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}\right) ' title='=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n}}+\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}=1-\left( \dfrac{1}{2^{n}}-\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}\right) ' class='latex' /> <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D1-%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' title='=1-\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Ora, como</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bk%7D%7D%3D%5Cleft%28+%5Csum_%7Bk%3D1%7D%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bk%7D%7D%5Cright%29+%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n+1}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=\left( \sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}\right) +\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=1}^{n+1}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}=\left( \sum_{k=1}^{n}\dfrac{1}{2^{k}}\right) +\dfrac{1}{2^{n+1}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>provámos deste modo que a igualdade se verifica para qualquer inteiro <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%5Cgeq+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n\geq 1' title='n\geq 1' class='latex' />.</p>
<p><strong>Exemplo 2</strong>: se <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> for um inteiro positivo, prove</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a%5E%7Bn%7D-b%5E%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cleft%28+a-b%5Cright%29+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7Bn-1-k%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a^{n}-b^{n}=\left( a-b\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{n-1-k}' title='a^{n}-b^{n}=\left( a-b\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{n-1-k}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Para <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%3D1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n=1' title='n=1' class='latex' />, temos <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a%5E%7B1%7D-b%5E%7B1%7D%3D%5Cleft%28+a-b%5Cright%29+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7B1-1%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7B1-1-k%7D%3Da-b&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a^{1}-b^{1}=\left( a-b\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{1-1}a^{k}b^{1-1-k}=a-b' title='a^{1}-b^{1}=\left( a-b\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{1-1}a^{k}b^{1-1-k}=a-b' class='latex' />.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Antes de aplicar a hipótese de indução, a ideia fundamental consiste em mostrar a validade da identidade auxiliar</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+a%5E%7Bn%7D-b%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cright%29+P%28n%2B1%29%3D%5Cleft%28+a%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D-b%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cright%29+P%28n%29%5Cqquad+%28%5Cast+%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( a^{n}-b^{n}\right) P(n+1)=\left( a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}\right) P(n)\qquad (\ast )' title='\left( a^{n}-b^{n}\right) P(n+1)=\left( a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}\right) P(n)\qquad (\ast )' class='latex' /></p>
<p>em que</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%28n%29%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7Bn-1-k%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(n)=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{n-1-k}' title='P(n)=\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{n-1-k}' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>De facto</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+a%5E%7Bn%7D-b%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cright%29+P%28n%2B1%29%3D%5Cleft%28+a%5E%7Bn%7D-b%5E%7Bn%7D%5Cright%29+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7Bn-k%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( a^{n}-b^{n}\right) P(n+1)=\left( a^{n}-b^{n}\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{n-k}' title='\left( a^{n}-b^{n}\right) P(n+1)=\left( a^{n}-b^{n}\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{n-k}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7Da%5E%7Bn%2Bk%7Db%5E%7Bn-k%7D%5Cright%29+-%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7B2n-k%7D%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{n+k}b^{n-k}\right) -\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{2n-k}\right) ' title='=\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{n+k}b^{n-k}\right) -\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{2n-k}\right) ' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+a%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D-b%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cright%29+P%28n%29%3D%5Cleft%28+a%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D-b%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%5Cright%29+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7Bn-1-k%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}\right) P(n)=\left( a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{n-1-k}' title='\left( a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}\right) P(n)=\left( a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{n-1-k}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bn%2Bk%2B1%7Db%5E%7Bn-1-k%7D%5Cright%29+-%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7B2n-k%7D%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{n+k+1}b^{n-1-k}\right) -\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{2n-k}\right) ' title='=\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{n+k+1}b^{n-1-k}\right) -\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{2n-k}\right) ' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Mas</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7Da%5E%7Bn%2Bk%7Db%5E%7Bn-k%7D%3Da%5E%7Bn%7Db%5E%7Bn%7D%2B%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bn%2Bk%2B1%7Db%5E%7Bn-1-k%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{n+k}b^{n-k}=a^{n}b^{n}+\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{n+k+1}b^{n-1-k}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{n+k}b^{n-k}=a^{n}b^{n}+\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{n+k+1}b^{n-1-k}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">e</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7B2n-k%7D%3Da%5E%7Bn%7Db%5E%7Bn%7D%2B%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7B2n-k%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{2n-k}=a^{n}b^{n}+\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{2n-k}' title='\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{2n-k}=a^{n}b^{n}+\displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{2n-k}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Subtraindo membro a membro, vem</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7Da%5E%7Bn%2Bk%7Db%5E%7Bn-k%7D%5Cright%29+-%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7B2n-k%7D%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{n+k}b^{n-k}\right) -\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{2n-k}\right) ' title='\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{n+k}b^{n-k}\right) -\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{2n-k}\right) ' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bn%2Bk%2B1%7Db%5E%7Bn-1-k%7D%5Cright%29+-%5Cleft%28+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn-1%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7B2n-k%7D%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{n+k+1}b^{n-1-k}\right) -\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{2n-k}\right) ' title='=\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{n+k+1}b^{n-1-k}\right) -\left( \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}a^{k}b^{2n-k}\right) ' class='latex' /></p>
<p>pelo que fica provada a identidade <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cast+%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\ast )' title='(\ast )' class='latex' /> da qual se tira</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D-b%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7Ba%5E%7Bn%7D-b%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%7BP%28n%29%7DP%28n%2B1%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}=\dfrac{a^{n}-b^{n}}{P(n)}P(n+1)' title='a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}=\dfrac{a^{n}-b^{n}}{P(n)}P(n+1)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Assim, admitindo que</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a%5E%7Bn%7D-b%5E%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cleft%28+a-b%5Cright%29+P%28n%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a^{n}-b^{n}=\left( a-b\right) P(n)' title='a^{n}-b^{n}=\left( a-b\right) P(n)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>resulta que</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D-b%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cleft%28+a-b%5Cright%29+P%28n%29%7D%7BP%28n%29%7DP%28n%2B1%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}=\dfrac{\left( a-b\right) P(n)}{P(n)}P(n+1)' title='a^{n+1}-b^{n+1}=\dfrac{\left( a-b\right) P(n)}{P(n)}P(n+1)' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cleft%28+a-b%5Cright%29+P%28n%2B1%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\left( a-b\right) P(n+1)' title='=\left( a-b\right) P(n+1)' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cleft%28+a-b%5Cright%29+%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bk%3D0%7D%5E%7Bn%7Da%5E%7Bk%7Db%5E%7Bn-k%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\left( a-b\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{n-k}' title='=\left( a-b\right) \displaystyle\sum_{k=0}^{n}a^{k}b^{n-k}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>como se queria mostrar.</p>
<p>§ 4. <strong>Exercício 1</strong>: prove que existe apenas um número natural que verifica a relação</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5E%7Bn%5C%21%7DC_%7Bn-2%7D%3D2%5E%7Bn-2%7D-1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='^{n\!}C_{n-2}=2^{n-2}-1' title='^{n\!}C_{n-2}=2^{n-2}-1' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Sugestão: utilize o princípio de indução para provar que a relação não é satisfeita por nenhum natural superior a seis.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Esta ideia é devida a <em>Vishal Lama </em>(<a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/02/28/exercicios-algebricos-simples-de-combinatoria/comment-page-1/#comment-815">neste comentário em inglês</a>).</p>
<p>§ 5. <strong>Exercício 2</strong>: podemos demonstrar que</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D%5Cqquad+n%3D1%2C2%2C3%2C%5Cldots+.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }\qquad n=1,2,3,\ldots .' title='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }\qquad n=1,2,3,\ldots .' class='latex' /></p>
<p>De facto substituindo em</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> por <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1' title='1' class='latex' />, ficamos com</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%281%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29%3D%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+%5Cdfrac%7B3%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7B1%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left(1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right)=\Gamma \left( \dfrac{3}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2^{1}}\sqrt{\pi }=\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left(1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right)=\Gamma \left( \dfrac{3}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2^{1}}\sqrt{\pi }=\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' />,</p>
<p>que vemos ser verdadeiro, visto que da <a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2008/02/18/integrais-improprios-a-funcao-gama/">equação funcional da função gama</a></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+x%2B1%5Cright%29+%3Dx%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+x%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( x+1\right) =x\Gamma \left( x\right) ' title='\Gamma \left( x+1\right) =x\Gamma \left( x\right) ' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/01/22/formula-de-reflexao-ou-dos-complementos-da-funcao-especial-beta/">se obtém</a>, para <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x=\dfrac{1}{2}' title='x=\dfrac{1}{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+1%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( 1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2}\Gamma \left( \dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left( 1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2}\Gamma \left( \dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>Admitimos agora que</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e fazemos, na equação funcional, <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%3Dn%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x=n+\dfrac{1}{2}' title='x=n+\dfrac{1}{2}' class='latex' />. Como vem sucessivamente</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+n%2B1%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%5CGamma%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( n+1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \Gamma\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left( n+1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \Gamma\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7B2n%2B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%5Cleft%28+2n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{2n+1}{2}\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }=\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) \left( 2n+1\right) }{2^{n+1}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='=\dfrac{2n+1}{2}\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }=\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) \left( 2n+1\right) }{2^{n+1}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%5Cleft%5B+2%5Cleft%28+n%2B1%5Cright%29+-1%5Cright%5D+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) \left[ 2\left( n+1\right) -1\right] }{2^{n+1}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='=\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) \left[ 2\left( n+1\right) -1\right] }{2^{n+1}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p>demonstra-se desta forma o passo de indução. <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cblacktriangleleft&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\blacktriangleleft' title='\blacktriangleleft' class='latex' /></p>
Posted in Exercício, Indução matemática, Matemática, Matemática Gerais, Teoria dos Números Tagged: Exercícios, Matemática <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gocomments/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/comments/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godelicious/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/delicious/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gostumble/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/stumble/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godigg/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/digg/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/goreddit/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/reddit/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8815/" /></a> <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=problemasteoremas.wordpress.com&blog=1866481&post=8815&subd=problemasteoremas&ref=&feed=1" /></div>]]></content:encoded>
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			<media:title type="html">ATavares</media:title>
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		<title>Problema do mês :: Problem of the month #2. (Coeficientes da série binomial :: Binomial series coefficients). Resolução :: Solution</title>
		<link>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/09/10/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-resolucao-do-2-coeficientes-da-serie-binomial-solution-to-the-2-binomial-series-coefficients/</link>
		<comments>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/09/10/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-resolucao-do-2-coeficientes-da-serie-binomial-solution-to-the-2-binomial-series-coefficients/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Thu, 10 Sep 2009 23:59:01 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Américo Tavares</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Math]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problem]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problem Of The Month]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problema]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problema do mês]]></category>

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		<description><![CDATA[ ver/see Problema do mês Problem of the month
Problema: Admita que . Seja  um número real,  e 
 
Deduza a identidade 
.

 
Resolução de antonio girao 
[que usou a notação  ].



 
 


 



Outros: Pierre Bernard (aqui) e MathOMan (aqui).
* * *
Problem: Suppose that . Let  be a real number,  and 
. 
Derive the identity 
.

 
Solution by antonio [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=problemasteoremas.wordpress.com&blog=1866481&post=8704&subd=problemasteoremas&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src="http://www.adobe.com/images/pdficon_small.gif" alt="" width="17" height="17" /> </span>ver/<em>see</em> <a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month/">Problema do mês <em>Problem of the month</em></a></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><strong><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-2/">Problema</a>:</strong><span style="color:#000000;"> <span style="color:#0000ff;">Admita que <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%3D1%2C2%2C3%2C%5Cdots+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n=1,2,3,\dots ' title='n=1,2,3,\dots ' class='latex' />. Seja <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5Cge+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x\ge 0' title='x\ge 0' class='latex' /> um número real, <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7B0%7D%3D1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{0}=1' title='\dbinom{x}{0}=1' class='latex' /> e </span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%5Cleft%28+x-1%5Cright%29+%5Ccdots%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7Bn%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{n}=\dfrac{x\left( x-1\right) \cdots\left( x-n+1\right) }{n!}' title='\dbinom{x}{n}=\dfrac{x\left( x-1\right) \cdots\left( x-n+1\right) }{n!}' class='latex' /></span><span style="color:#0000ff;"> </span></span></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="color:#0000ff;">Deduza a identidade </span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn%7D%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn-1%7D%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bx%2B1%7D%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{n}+\dbinom{x}{n-1}=\dbinom{x+1}{n}' title='\dbinom{x}{n}+\dbinom{x}{n-1}=\dbinom{x+1}{n}' class='latex' />.</span></span></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip ' title='\bigskip ' class='latex' /></span></span></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"> </span></span></span><br />
<span style="color:#0000ff;"><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-2/comment-page-1/#comment-1090"><strong>Resolução</strong> de<em> antonio girao</em></a><em> </em></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;">[que usou a notação <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21%7D%3Dx%5Cleft%28+x-1%5Cright%29+%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !}=x\left( x-1\right) \cdots \left( x-n+1\right) ' title='\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !}=x\left( x-1\right) \cdots \left( x-n+1\right) ' class='latex' /> ].</span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{n}=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}' title='\dbinom{x}{n}=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn-1%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%5Cleft%28+n-1%5Cright%29+%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{n-1}=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !}' title='\dbinom{x}{n-1}=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%5Cleft%28+n-1%5Cright%29+%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !}' title='\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"> <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21n%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%5Cleft%28+n-1%5Cright%29+%21n%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !n}' title='=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !n}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"> <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21n%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%5Cleft%28+n-1%5Cright%29+%21n%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!\left( x-n+1\right) }{\left( x-n\right) !n!\left( x-n+1\right) }+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !n}' title='=\dfrac{x!\left( x-n+1\right) }{\left( x-n\right) !n!\left( x-n+1\right) }+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !n}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21n%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!\left( x-n+1\right) }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' title='=\dfrac{x!\left( x-n+1\right) }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%5Cleft%5B+%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%2Bn%5Cright%5D+%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!\left[ \left( x-n+1\right) +n\right] }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' title='=\dfrac{x!\left[ \left( x-n+1\right) +n\right] }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"> <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%5Cleft%28+x%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!\left( x+1\right) }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' title='=\dfrac{x!\left( x+1\right) }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cleft%28+x%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x%2B1-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{\left( x+1\right) !}{\left( x+1-n\right) !n!}' title='=\dfrac{\left( x+1\right) !}{\left( x+1-n\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bx%2B1%7D%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dbinom{x+1}{n}' title='=\dbinom{x+1}{n}' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip ' title='\bigskip ' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><strong>Outros:</strong> <a href="http://allken-bernard.org/pierre/weblog/?page_id=167">Pierre Bernard</a> (<a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-2/comment-page-1/#comment-1066">aqui</a>) e <a href="http://www.mathoman.com/en/">MathOMan</a> (<a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-2/comment-page-1/#comment-1073">aqui</a>).</span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><strong>* * *</strong></span></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><span style="color:#000000;"><em><strong><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-2/">Problem</a>:</strong> Suppose that</em> <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%3D1%2C2%2C3%2C%5Cdots+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n=1,2,3,\dots ' title='n=1,2,3,\dots ' class='latex' />.<em> Let</em> <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5Cge+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x\ge 0' title='x\ge 0' class='latex' /><em> be a real number,</em> <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7B0%7D%3D1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{0}=1' title='\dbinom{x}{0}=1' class='latex' /> <em>and</em> </span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%5Cleft%28+x-1%5Cright%29+%5Ccdots%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7Bn%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{n}=\dfrac{x\left( x-1\right) \cdots\left( x-n+1\right) }{n!}' title='\dbinom{x}{n}=\dfrac{x\left( x-1\right) \cdots\left( x-n+1\right) }{n!}' class='latex' />. </span></p>
<p style="text-align:left;"><span style="color:#000000;"><em>Derive the identity</em> </span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn%7D%2B%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn-1%7D%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bx%2B1%7D%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{n}+\dbinom{x}{n-1}=\dbinom{x+1}{n}' title='\dbinom{x}{n}+\dbinom{x}{n-1}=\dbinom{x+1}{n}' class='latex' />.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip ' title='\bigskip ' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong> </strong></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-2/comment-page-1/#comment-1090"><em><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Solution</strong> by </span>antonio girao</em></a><em> </em></p>
<p>[<em>who used the notation</em> <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21%7D%3Dx%5Cleft%28+x-1%5Cright%29+%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !}=x\left( x-1\right) \cdots \left( x-n+1\right) ' title='\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !}=x\left( x-1\right) \cdots \left( x-n+1\right) ' class='latex' /> ].</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{n}=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}' title='\dbinom{x}{n}=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn-1%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%5Cleft%28+n-1%5Cright%29+%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dbinom{x}{n-1}=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !}' title='\dbinom{x}{n-1}=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !}' class='latex' /></p>
<p><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%5Cleft%28+n-1%5Cright%29+%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !}' title='\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !}' class='latex' /></p>
<p> <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21n%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%5Cleft%28+n-1%5Cright%29+%21n%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !n}' title='=\dfrac{x!}{\left( x-n\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !n}' class='latex' /></p>
<p> <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21n%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%5Cleft%28+n-1%5Cright%29+%21n%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!\left( x-n+1\right) }{\left( x-n\right) !n!\left( x-n+1\right) }+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !n}' title='=\dfrac{x!\left( x-n+1\right) }{\left( x-n\right) !n!\left( x-n+1\right) }+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !\left( n-1\right) !n}' class='latex' /></p>
<p><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21n%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!\left( x-n+1\right) }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' title='=\dfrac{x!\left( x-n+1\right) }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}+\dfrac{x!n}{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></p>
<p><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%5Cleft%5B+%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%2Bn%5Cright%5D+%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!\left[ \left( x-n+1\right) +n\right] }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' title='=\dfrac{x!\left[ \left( x-n+1\right) +n\right] }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></p>
<p> <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7Bx%21%5Cleft%28+x%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x-n%2B1%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{x!\left( x+1\right) }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' title='=\dfrac{x!\left( x+1\right) }{\left( x-n+1\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></p>
<p><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cleft%28+x%2B1%5Cright%29+%21%7D%7B%5Cleft%28+x%2B1-n%5Cright%29+%21n%21%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{\left( x+1\right) !}{\left( x+1-n\right) !n!}' title='=\dfrac{\left( x+1\right) !}{\left( x+1-n\right) !n!}' class='latex' /></p>
<p><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdbinom%7Bx%2B1%7D%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dbinom{x+1}{n}' title='=\dbinom{x+1}{n}' class='latex' /></p>
<p><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip ' title='\bigskip ' class='latex' /></span></p>
<p><span style="color:#000000;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><em><strong><span style="color:#000000;">Other solvers:</span></strong> </em><a href="http://allken-bernard.org/pierre/weblog/?page_id=167"><em>Pierre Bernard</em></a><em> (</em><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-2/comment-page-1/#comment-1066"><em>here</em></a><em>) e </em><a href="http://www.mathoman.com/en/"><em>MathOMan</em></a><em> (</em><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/problema-do-mes-problem-of-the-month-2/comment-page-1/#comment-1073"><em>here</em></a><em>).</em></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;">* * *</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Notas:</strong></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;">1. Estes coeficientes são os da série binomial</span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%281%2Bt%29%5Ex%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bn%3D0%7D%5E%7B%5Cinfty%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn%7Dt%5En&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(1+t)^x=\displaystyle\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\dbinom{x}{n}t^n' title='(1+t)^x=\displaystyle\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\dbinom{x}{n}t^n' class='latex' />, </span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;">que é convergente para <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%5Cvert+t%5Cright%5Cvert+%3C1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left\vert t\right\vert &lt;1' title='\left\vert t\right\vert &lt;1' class='latex' />.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;">2. O coeficiente de ordem <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> é um polinómio de grau <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> em <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong><em>Remarks:</em></strong></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><em>1. These coefficients are the binomial series ones</em></span></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#000000;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%281%2Bt%29%5Ex%3D%5Cdisplaystyle%5Csum_%7Bn%3D0%7D%5E%7B%5Cinfty%7D%5Cdbinom%7Bx%7D%7Bn%7Dt%5En&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(1+t)^x=\displaystyle\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\dbinom{x}{n}t^n' title='(1+t)^x=\displaystyle\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\dbinom{x}{n}t^n' class='latex' />, </span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;"><em>which is convergent for</em> <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%5Cvert+t%5Cright%5Cvert+%3C1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left\vert t\right\vert &lt;1' title='\left\vert t\right\vert &lt;1' class='latex' />.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#000000;">2. <em>The coefficient of order</em> <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> <em>is a polynomial of degree</em> <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /><em> in</em> <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />.</span></p>
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		<title>Three gamma function identities</title>
		<link>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/08/26/three-gamma-function-identities/</link>
		<comments>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/08/26/three-gamma-function-identities/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 26 Aug 2009 13:35:51 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Américo Tavares</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Calculus]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cálculo]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Exercise]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Exercício]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Função Gama]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Funções Especiais]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Identidade matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Math]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problem]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problema]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/?p=8620</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Let  . Show that

and
 .
Let . If , show that
.
Hints: for the first two identities use the formula proved here. As for the last one evaluate the beta function value B and by means of an appropriate  change of variable find a relation between B and B.
PS. Listed in the Carnival of Mathematics #56. See pingback in the [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=problemasteoremas.wordpress.com&blog=1866481&post=8620&subd=problemasteoremas&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>Let <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%3D1%2C2%2C%5Cldots+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n=1,2,\ldots ' title='n=1,2,\ldots ' class='latex' /> . Show that</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi%7D%5C%3B%5CGamma+%282n%2B1%29%3D2%5E%7B2n%7D%5CGamma%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%5CGamma+%28n%2B1%29%5Cqquad%5Cleft%28+1%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sqrt{\pi}\;\Gamma (2n+1)=2^{2n}\Gamma\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \Gamma (n+1)\qquad\left( 1\right) ' title='\sqrt{\pi}\;\Gamma (2n+1)=2^{2n}\Gamma\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \Gamma (n+1)\qquad\left( 1\right) ' class='latex' /></p>
<p>and</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi%7D%5C%3B%5CGamma+%282n%29%3D2%5E%7B2n-1%7D%5CGamma+%28n%29%5CGamma%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29%5Cqquad+%5Cleft%28+2%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sqrt{\pi}\;\Gamma (2n)=2^{2n-1}\Gamma (n)\Gamma\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right)\qquad \left( 2\right) ' title='\sqrt{\pi}\;\Gamma (2n)=2^{2n-1}\Gamma (n)\Gamma\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right)\qquad \left( 2\right) ' class='latex' /> .</p>
<p>Let <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5Cin%5Cmathbb%7BR%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x\in\mathbb{R}' title='x\in\mathbb{R}' class='latex' />. If <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%3E0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x&gt;0' title='x&gt;0' class='latex' />, show that</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi%7D%5C%3B%5CGamma+%282x%29%3D2%5E%7B2x-1%7D%5CGamma+%28x%29%5CGamma%5Cleft%28+x%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29%5Cqquad+%5Cleft%28+3%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sqrt{\pi}\;\Gamma (2x)=2^{2x-1}\Gamma (x)\Gamma\left( x+\dfrac{1}{2}\right)\qquad \left( 3\right) ' title='\sqrt{\pi}\;\Gamma (2x)=2^{2x-1}\Gamma (x)\Gamma\left( x+\dfrac{1}{2}\right)\qquad \left( 3\right) ' class='latex' />.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Hints: for the first two identities use the formula proved <a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/08/05/exercicio-valores-da-funcao-gama-a-meio-de-dois-inteiros-consecutivos/">here</a>. As for the last one evaluate the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_function">beta function </a>value B<img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x%2Cx%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x,x) ' title='(x,x) ' class='latex' /> and by means of an appropriate  change of variable find a relation between B<img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x%2Cx%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x,x) ' title='(x,x) ' class='latex' /> and B<img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28x%2C%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left(x,\dfrac{1}{2}\right) ' title='\left(x,\dfrac{1}{2}\right) ' class='latex' />.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">PS. Listed in the Carnival of Mathematics #56. See pingback in the 1st comment.</p>
Posted in Calculus, Cálculo, Exercício, Exercise, Função Gama, Funções Especiais, Identidade matemática, Matemática, Math, Problem, Problema Tagged: Matemática, Math, Problema <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gocomments/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/comments/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godelicious/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/delicious/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/gostumble/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/stumble/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/godigg/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/digg/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/" /></a> <a rel="nofollow" href="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/goreddit/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/"><img alt="" border="0" src="http://feeds.wordpress.com/1.0/reddit/problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/8620/" /></a> <img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=problemasteoremas.wordpress.com&blog=1866481&post=8620&subd=problemasteoremas&ref=&feed=1" /></div>]]></content:encoded>
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		<title>Γ(n+1/2) Valores da função gama a meio de inteiros consecutivos</title>
		<link>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/08/05/exercicio-valores-da-funcao-gama-a-meio-de-dois-inteiros-consecutivos/</link>
		<comments>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/08/05/exercicio-valores-da-funcao-gama-a-meio-de-dois-inteiros-consecutivos/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Wed, 05 Aug 2009 15:44:28 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Américo Tavares</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Cálculo]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Demonstração]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Exercício]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Função Gama]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Funções Especiais]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Indução matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Exercícios]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/?p=8469</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Como exercício simples do método de  indução podemos demonstrar que

De facto substituindo em
 
  por , ficamos com
,
que vemos ser verdadeiro, visto que da equação funcional da função gama

se obtém, para 
.
 Admitimos agora que

e  fazemos, na equação funcional, . Como vem sucessivamente



demonstra-se desta forma o passo de indução. 
Posted in Cálculo, Demonstração, Exercício, Função Gama, Funções Especiais, Indução matemática, [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=problemasteoremas.wordpress.com&blog=1866481&post=8469&subd=problemasteoremas&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>Como <em>exercício</em> simples do método de  indução podemos demonstrar que</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D%5Cqquad+n%3D1%2C2%2C3%2C%5Cldots+.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }\qquad n=1,2,3,\ldots .' title='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }\qquad n=1,2,3,\ldots .' class='latex' /></p>
<p>De facto substituindo em</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"> <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p> <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> por <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1' title='1' class='latex' />, ficamos com</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%281%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29%3D%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+%5Cdfrac%7B3%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%5E%7B1%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left(1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right)=\Gamma \left( \dfrac{3}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2^{1}}\sqrt{\pi }=\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left(1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right)=\Gamma \left( \dfrac{3}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2^{1}}\sqrt{\pi }=\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' />,</p>
<p>que vemos ser verdadeiro, visto que da <a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2008/02/18/integrais-improprios-a-funcao-gama/">equação funcional da função gama</a></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+x%2B1%5Cright%29+%3Dx%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+x%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( x+1\right) =x\Gamma \left( x\right) ' title='\Gamma \left( x+1\right) =x\Gamma \left( x\right) ' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a href="http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/01/22/formula-de-reflexao-ou-dos-complementos-da-funcao-especial-beta/">se obtém</a>, para <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x=\dfrac{1}{2}' title='x=\dfrac{1}{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+1%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( 1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2}\Gamma \left( \dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left( 1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2}\Gamma \left( \dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1}{2}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' />.</p>
<p> Admitimos agora que</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e  fazemos, na equação funcional, <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%3Dn%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x=n+\dfrac{1}{2}' title='x=n+\dfrac{1}{2}' class='latex' />. Como vem sucessivamente</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CGamma+%5Cleft%28+n%2B1%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%5CGamma%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cleft%28+n%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Gamma \left( n+1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \Gamma\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='\Gamma \left( n+1+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \Gamma\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) =\left( n+\dfrac{1}{2}\right) \dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7B2n%2B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%5Cleft%28+2n%2B1%5Cright%29+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{2n+1}{2}\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }=\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) \left( 2n+1\right) }{2^{n+1}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='=\dfrac{2n+1}{2}\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) }{2^{n}}\sqrt{\pi }=\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) \left( 2n+1\right) }{2^{n+1}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%5Ccdot+3%5Ccdot+5%5Ccdots+%5Cleft%28+2n-1%5Cright%29+%5Cleft%5B+2%5Cleft%28+n%2B1%5Cright%29+-1%5Cright%5D+%7D%7B2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cpi+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='=\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) \left[ 2\left( n+1\right) -1\right] }{2^{n+1}}\sqrt{\pi }' title='=\dfrac{1\cdot 3\cdot 5\cdots \left( 2n-1\right) \left[ 2\left( n+1\right) -1\right] }{2^{n+1}}\sqrt{\pi }' class='latex' /></p>
<p>demonstra-se desta forma o passo de indução. <img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cblacktriangleleft&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\blacktriangleleft' title='\blacktriangleleft' class='latex' /></p>
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			<media:title type="html">ATavares</media:title>
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		<title>Verificação de identidades trigonométricas através dos complexos</title>
		<link>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/07/31/verificacao-de-identidades-trigonometricas-atraves-dos-complexos/</link>
		<comments>http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/2009/07/31/verificacao-de-identidades-trigonometricas-atraves-dos-complexos/#comments</comments>
		<pubDate>Fri, 31 Jul 2009 14:33:33 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator>Américo Tavares</dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Análise Complexa]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Cálculo]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Exercício]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Identidade matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Matemática]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Matemática Gerais]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Problema]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Trigonometria]]></category>
		<category><![CDATA[Exercícios]]></category>

		<guid isPermaLink="false">http://problemasteoremas.wordpress.com/?p=8209</guid>
		<description><![CDATA[Actualização de 1.08.09: incluída figura
De

e

obtemos, por soma

e, por subtracção

Em vez dos métodos usuais da trigonometria é  possível verificar uma identidade trigonométrica que seja uma fracção racional em  e  utilizando estas substituições. Este é  um dos métodos indicados neste post de Annoying Precision.
Exemplo: Demonstrar a seguinte identidade

Então fazendo as substituiçoes no primeiro membro, teremos

e, [...]<img alt="" border="0" src="http://stats.wordpress.com/b.gif?host=problemasteoremas.wordpress.com&blog=1866481&post=8209&subd=problemasteoremas&ref=&feed=1" />]]></description>
			<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><br /><p>Actualização de 1.08.09: incluída figura</p>
<div id="attachment_8317" class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 500px"><a href="http://problemasteoremas.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/discounitario.jpg"><img class="size-medium wp-image-8317" title="discounitario" src="http://problemasteoremas.files.wordpress.com/2009/07/discounitario.jpg?w=490&#038;h=320" alt="| cos α + i sin α | = 1, Re(α) = cos α, Im(α) = sin α" width="490" height="320" /></a><p class="wp-caption-text">| cos α + i sin α | = 1, Re(α) = cos α, Im(α) = sin α</p></div>
<p>De</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=z%3De%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%2Bi%5Csin+%5Calpha+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='z=e^{i\alpha }=\cos \alpha +i\sin \alpha ' title='z=e^{i\alpha }=\cos \alpha +i\sin \alpha ' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=z%5E%7B-1%7D%3De%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Ccos+%5Calpha+-i%5Csin+%5Calpha+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='z^{-1}=e^{-i\alpha }=\cos \alpha -i\sin \alpha ' title='z^{-1}=e^{-i\alpha }=\cos \alpha -i\sin \alpha ' class='latex' /></p>
<p>obtemos, por soma</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%3D%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D%2Be%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\cos \alpha =\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}' title='\cos \alpha =\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e, por subtracção</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csin+%5Calpha+%3D%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D-e%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2i%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sin \alpha =\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}' title='\sin \alpha =\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><em>Em vez dos métodos usuais da trigonometria é  possível verificar uma identidade trigonométrica que seja uma fracção racional em <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ccos+%5Calpha+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\cos \alpha ' title='\cos \alpha ' class='latex' /> e <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csin+%5Calpha+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sin \alpha ' title='\sin \alpha ' class='latex' /> utilizando estas substituições</em>.</span> Este é  um dos métodos indicados neste <a href="http://qchu.wordpress.com/2009/07/17/imo-2009-and-proof-systems/">post </a>de <em>Annoying Precision</em>.</p>
<p><strong>Exemplo</strong>: Demonstrar a seguinte identidade</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B1%2B%5Csin+%5Calpha+%7D%7B%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%7D%7B1-%5Csin+%5Calpha+%7D%5Cqquad+%5Calpha+%5Cneq+%5Cleft%28+2k%2B1%5Cright%29+%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cpi+%7D%7B2%7D%3B%5C%3Bk%5Cin%5Cmathbb%7BN%7D_%7B0%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{1+\sin \alpha }{\cos \alpha }=\dfrac{\cos \alpha }{1-\sin \alpha }\qquad \alpha \neq \left( 2k+1\right) \dfrac{\pi }{2};\;k\in\mathbb{N}_{0}' title='\dfrac{1+\sin \alpha }{\cos \alpha }=\dfrac{\cos \alpha }{1-\sin \alpha }\qquad \alpha \neq \left( 2k+1\right) \dfrac{\pi }{2};\;k\in\mathbb{N}_{0}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Então fazendo as substituiçoes no primeiro membro, teremos</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B1%2B%5Csin+%5Calpha+%7D%7B%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%2B%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D-e%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2i%7D%7D%7B%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D%2Be%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{1+\sin \alpha }{\cos \alpha }=\dfrac{1+\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}}{\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}}' title='\dfrac{1+\sin \alpha }{\cos \alpha }=\dfrac{1+\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}}{\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e, no segundo</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%7D%7B1-%5Csin+%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D%2Be%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2%7D%7D%7B1-%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D-e%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2i%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{\cos \alpha }{1-\sin \alpha }=\dfrac{\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}}{1-\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}}' title='\dfrac{\cos \alpha }{1-\sin \alpha }=\dfrac{\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}}{1-\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Assim, para que a identidade seja verdadeira é  condição suficiente que seja verdadeira a seguinte</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B1%2B%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D-e%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2i%7D%7D%7B%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha%7D%2Be%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2%7D%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D%2Be%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2%7D%7D%7B1-%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D-e%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2i%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{1+\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}}{\dfrac{e^{i\alpha}+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}}=\dfrac{\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}}{1-\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}}' title='\dfrac{1+\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}}{\dfrac{e^{i\alpha}+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}}=\dfrac{\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}}{1-\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }-e^{-i\alpha }}{2i}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>ou, visto que <img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=z%3De%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='z=e^{i\alpha }' title='z=e^{i\alpha }' class='latex' /> e <img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=z%5E%7B-1%7D%3De%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='z^{-1}=e^{-i\alpha }' title='z^{-1}=e^{-i\alpha }' class='latex' />,  as identidades sucessivas</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft%28+1%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bz-z%5E%7B-1%7D%7D%7B2i%7D%5Cright%29+%5Cleft%28+1-%5Cdfrac%7Bz-z%5E%7B-1%7D%7D%7B2i%7D%5Cright%29+%3D%5Cleft%28+%5Cdfrac%7Bz%2Bz%5E%7B-1%7D%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%5Cleft%28+%5Cdfrac%7Bz%2Bz%5E%7B-1%7D%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left( 1+\dfrac{z-z^{-1}}{2i}\right) \left( 1-\dfrac{z-z^{-1}}{2i}\right) =\left( \dfrac{z+z^{-1}}{2}\right) \left( \dfrac{z+z^{-1}}{2}\right) ' title='\left( 1+\dfrac{z-z^{-1}}{2i}\right) \left( 1-\dfrac{z-z^{-1}}{2i}\right) =\left( \dfrac{z+z^{-1}}{2}\right) \left( \dfrac{z+z^{-1}}{2}\right) ' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1-%5Cleft%28+%5Cdfrac%7Bz-z%5E%7B-1%7D%7D%7B2i%7D%5Cright%29+%5E%7B2%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cleft%28+z%2Bz%5E%7B-1%7D%5Cright%29+%5E%7B2%7D%7D%7B4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1-\left( \dfrac{z-z^{-1}}{2i}\right) ^{2}=\dfrac{\left( z+z^{-1}\right) ^{2}}{4}' title='1-\left( \dfrac{z-z^{-1}}{2i}\right) ^{2}=\dfrac{\left( z+z^{-1}\right) ^{2}}{4}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1%2B%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cleft%28+z-z%5E%7B-1%7D%5Cright%29+%5E%7B2%7D%7D%7B4%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Cleft%28+z%2Bz%5E%7B-1%7D%5Cright%29+%5E%7B2%7D%7D%7B4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1+\dfrac{\left( z-z^{-1}\right) ^{2}}{4}=\dfrac{\left( z+z^{-1}\right) ^{2}}{4}' title='1+\dfrac{\left( z-z^{-1}\right) ^{2}}{4}=\dfrac{\left( z+z^{-1}\right) ^{2}}{4}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=4%2B%5Cleft%28+z-z%5E%7B-1%7D%5Cright%29+%5E%7B2%7D%3D%5Cleft%28+z%2Bz%5E%7B-1%7D%5Cright%29+%5E%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='4+\left( z-z^{-1}\right) ^{2}=\left( z+z^{-1}\right) ^{2}' title='4+\left( z-z^{-1}\right) ^{2}=\left( z+z^{-1}\right) ^{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=4%2Bz%5E%7B2%7D%2Bz%5E%7B-2%7D-2z%5E%7B-1%7Dz%3Dz%5E%7B2%7D%2Bz%5E%7B-2%7D%2B2z%5E%7B-1%7Dz&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='4+z^{2}+z^{-2}-2z^{-1}z=z^{2}+z^{-2}+2z^{-1}z' title='4+z^{2}+z^{-2}-2z^{-1}z=z^{2}+z^{-2}+2z^{-1}z' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=4-2%3D2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='4-2=2' title='4-2=2' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Como esta identidade é verdadeira, conclui-se que as anteriores, incluindo a do exemplo são igualmente verdadeiras.</p>
<p><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cbigskip&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\bigskip' title='\bigskip' class='latex' /></p>
<p><strong>Exercício:</strong> Verifique a seguinte identidade trigonométrica</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=3%2B4%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%2B%5Ccos+2%5Calpha+%3D2%5Cleft%28+1%2B%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%5Cright%29+%5E%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='3+4\cos \alpha +\cos 2\alpha =2\left( 1+\cos \alpha \right) ^{2}' title='3+4\cos \alpha +\cos 2\alpha =2\left( 1+\cos \alpha \right) ^{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">usada, na forma da desigualdade </p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=3%2B4%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%2B%5Ccos+2%5Calpha+%5Cgeq+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='3+4\cos \alpha +\cos 2\alpha \geq 0' title='3+4\cos \alpha +\cos 2\alpha \geq 0' class='latex' />,</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">por De la Vallée Poussin num passo da demonstração  do <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PNT">teorema dos números primos</a></p>
<p><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cblacktriangleright+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=545454&#038;s=0' alt='\blacktriangleright ' title='\blacktriangleright ' class='latex' /> Seguindo o mesmo procedimento</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%3D%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D%2Be%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2%7D%5Cqquad+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\cos \alpha =\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}\qquad ' title='\cos \alpha =\dfrac{e^{i\alpha }+e^{-i\alpha }}{2}\qquad ' class='latex' />,</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"> ou</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ccos+2%5Calpha+%3D%5Cdfrac%7Be%5E%7Bi2%5Calpha+%7D%2Be%5E%7B-i2%5Calpha+%7D%7D%7B2%7D%5Cqquad+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\cos 2\alpha =\dfrac{e^{i2\alpha }+e^{-i2\alpha }}{2}\qquad ' title='\cos 2\alpha =\dfrac{e^{i2\alpha }+e^{-i2\alpha }}{2}\qquad ' class='latex' />,</p>
<p style="text-align:left;">e</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=z%3De%5E%7Bi%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%2Bi%5Csin+%5Calpha+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='z=e^{i\alpha }=\cos \alpha +i\sin \alpha ' title='z=e^{i\alpha }=\cos \alpha +i\sin \alpha ' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=z%5E%7B-1%7D%3De%5E%7B-i%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Ccos+%5Calpha+-i%5Csin+%5Calpha+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='z^{-1}=e^{-i\alpha }=\cos \alpha -i\sin \alpha ' title='z^{-1}=e^{-i\alpha }=\cos \alpha -i\sin \alpha ' class='latex' /></p>
<p>tem-se agora</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=3%2B4%5Cdfrac%7Bz%2Bz%5E%7B-1%7D%7D%7B2%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bz%5E%7B2%7D%2Bz%5E%7B-2%7D%7D%7B2%7D%3D2%5Cleft%28+1%2B%5Cdfrac%7Bz%2Bz%5E%7B-1%7D%7D%7B2%7D%5Cright%29+%5E%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='3+4\dfrac{z+z^{-1}}{2}+\dfrac{z^{2}+z^{-2}}{2}=2\left( 1+\dfrac{z+z^{-1}}{2}\right) ^{2}' title='3+4\dfrac{z+z^{-1}}{2}+\dfrac{z^{2}+z^{-2}}{2}=2\left( 1+\dfrac{z+z^{-1}}{2}\right) ^{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>ou, após simplificação</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7Dz%5E%7B2%7D%2B2z%2B3%2B2z%5E%7B-1%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7Dz%5E%7B-2%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7Dz%5E%7B2%7D%2B2z%2B3%2B2z%5E%7B-1%7D%2B%5Cdfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7Dz%5E%7B-2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{1}{2}z^{2}+2z+3+2z^{-1}+\dfrac{1}{2}z^{-2}=\dfrac{1}{2}z^{2}+2z+3+2z^{-1}+\dfrac{1}{2}z^{-2}' title='\dfrac{1}{2}z^{2}+2z+3+2z^{-1}+\dfrac{1}{2}z^{-2}=\dfrac{1}{2}z^{2}+2z+3+2z^{-1}+\dfrac{1}{2}z^{-2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=0%3D0%5Cqquad+%5Cblacktriangleleft+&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='0=0\qquad \blacktriangleleft ' title='0=0\qquad \blacktriangleleft ' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Adenda de 2.08.09:</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Problema</strong>: utilize  este método para demonstrar que</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s2.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B1-2%5Ccos+%5E%7B2%7D%5Calpha+%7D%7B%5Csin+%5Calpha+%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Ctan+%5Calpha+-%5Ccot+%5Calpha&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{1-2\cos ^{2}\alpha }{\sin \alpha \cos \alpha }=\tan \alpha -\cot \alpha' title='\dfrac{1-2\cos ^{2}\alpha }{\sin \alpha \cos \alpha }=\tan \alpha -\cot \alpha' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">isto é</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s3.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdfrac%7B1-2%5Ccos+%5E%7B2%7D%5Calpha+%7D%7B%5Csin+%5Calpha+%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%7D%3D%5Cdfrac%7B%5Csin+%5Calpha+%7D%7B%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%7D-%5Cdfrac%7B%5Ccos+%5Calpha+%7D%7B%5Csin+%5Calpha+%7D.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dfrac{1-2\cos ^{2}\alpha }{\sin \alpha \cos \alpha }=\dfrac{\sin \alpha }{\cos \alpha }-\dfrac{\cos \alpha }{\sin \alpha }.' title='\dfrac{1-2\cos ^{2}\alpha }{\sin \alpha \cos \alpha }=\dfrac{\sin \alpha }{\cos \alpha }-\dfrac{\cos \alpha }{\sin \alpha }.' class='latex' /></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#0000ff;">Por este processo também é fácil verificar se certas  igualdades trigonométricas são  identidades ou equações</span>. Por exemplo, veja se a igualdade seguinte é ou não uma identidade:</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img src='http://s1.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=3%5Ccos%5E2x%2B5%5Csin%5E2x%3D7%5Csin+x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='3\cos^2x+5\sin^2x=7\sin x' title='3\cos^2x+5\sin^2x=7\sin x' class='latex' /></p>
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